Following the Nazi party's successes in the 1930 elections (they won 6.5 million votes to become the second largest party in Germany), Hitler worked ceaselessly to consolidate the party power. The effects of the Depression deepened, and by 1932, 3 million Germans were suffering unemployment. President von Hindenburg suggested a new coalition to Hitler, with him serving as Chancellor of the country.

When the new elections were scheduled for March 1933, the Nazis were ready. They drew up lists of all their political enemies, including leaders of other parties and those who had publicly criticized the Nazis. Mysteriously, the Reichstag (a central government building) was set afire. Hitler claimed that the Communists were trying to overthrow the government and start another revolution. He pressed Hindenburg to sign an emergency decree, granting Hitler and his party the right to take any measures deemed necessary "to protect the state" and canceling civil liberties.

Mass Rally in 1933

Hindenburg signed on February 1933, and Hitler became the dictator of Germany. Any activity counter to the Nazi party was restricted.

In the March elections, the Nazis only gained 44% of the votes, and formed a government with the Social Democrats. But the political terror continued. Hitler's private army of Brownshirts (the Sturmabteilung, or SA) and his private security force, the Blackshirts (Schutzstaffel, or SS0 continued to arrest political enemies, sending thousands to Dachau, the first concentration camp.

The sword of propaganda was wielded most effectively. Hitler's youth groups, sent their graduates for paramilitary training and many joined the armed forces. Textbooks were written to promote Nazi ideology. Since the 1933 emergency decree, national media was controlled and the radio and newspapers served as Nazi mouthpieces.

"Boycott Jewish Stores"

Hitler's war with the Jews also stepped up in pace. Whereas before, anti-Semitic rhetoric helped the Nazis get elected, now they had the power to put some of their ideas into action. In April 1933, Jews were banished from government jobs, a quota was established banning Jews from university, and a boycott of Jewish shops enacted. Then Hitler turned away from active persecution of Germany's Jews while he focused on strengthening his party.

In 1935, the infamous Nuremberg Laws were passed. These classed Jews as German "subjects" instead of citizens. Intermarriage was outlawed, more professions were closed to Jews, shops displayed signs reading, "No Jews Allowed." Harassment was common.

Hitler wanted to encourage the Jews to leave the country. By 1938, one quarter of German Jewry had left. many more would have gone, but no one was interested in taking them in. In July, 1938, representatives from 32 countries met at Evian in France to discuss the "refugee problem." Hitler, when he heard of the upcoming conference, was unimpressed. Let them convert their sympathy into action, he retorted: "We, on our part, are ready to put all these criminals [Jews] at the disposal of these countries, for all I care, on luxury ships." Tragically, his assessment of the Western countries' true intentions was all too correct.

Jews Attempting an Illegal Border Crossing into Switzerland

In Evian, every country stepped forward to say what a tragedy it was, and how sorry they were, but they themselves could not possibly allow more than their infinitesimal immigration quotas allowed. No doors were opened. The Germans issued this response to the Conference's outcome: "Since in many countries it was recently regarded as incomprehensible why Germany did not wish to preserve in its population an element like the Jews. . . . it appears astounding that these countries seem in no way anxious to make use of these elements [the Jews] themselves, now that the opportunity arises."

Hitler saw the writing on the wall: No one cares about the fate of the Jews of Germany. Since they were unwanted, they could now be disposed of, as Hitler saw fit. If forced emigration wouldn't work, there were other alternatives.

This early betrayal of the Jews, by the "Allied" countries, is one of the greatest tragedies of the Holocaust. Had the way been opened to them, they might have escaped from Hitler's clutches, and the message of concern that would have been sent might have slowed the Germans from treating the Jews that remained as fair game.

Synagogue Burning on Kristallnacht

In another attempt to purge Germany of her Jews, a roundup of Jews with Polish citizenship was enacted in October 1938. These Polish Jews were herded like cattle and dumped at the Polish border, where the Poles kept them in no-man's land. One deported family wrote to their son who was studying in Paris, Zindel Grynszpan. When he heard of the torments his parents went through, he resolved to avenge them and shot a petty German official stationed in Paris.

This small rebellion was a perfect opportunity for the Germans to rise up in righteous indignation. The Nazis called for demonstrations, and aided by their fellow Germans, violence erupted across Germany for two days. Stores were destroyed, synagogues burned, and twenty thousand Jews arrested (Rheinhard Heydrich, who helped organize the attacks, suggested that rich and prominent Jews be especially targeted].

The riots came to be known as "Kristallnacht" - the Night of Glass, for all the broken glass.

Meanwhile, Germany had been rearming itself. By 1936, Hitler had sent troops into the Rhineland, a border zone that was supposed to remain demilitarized after World War I. In 1938, he annexed Austria, which contained 183,000 Jews and stimulated the refugee crisis addressed at the Evian conference. But the Allied countries hoped that Hitler would be satisfied, and Austria did not complain. Czechoslovakia was conquered in 1939, but still Europe looked on.

This gave Hitler the green light he needed. By September, he was ready to move on Poland.

Go on to Engulfed in Flames: 1939-1945.